Research methodology

DETAILED NOTE

Sources for Problem Selection 

As noted above, it is important that a researchable area has been selected first before locating a research problem or research topic. Four important sources which can facilitate this have been underlined by Koul (2007) discussed as follows.

Professional Literature

One needs to locate the most authentic professional literature in one’s discipline and the area of research. In every discipline and/or area of research, the experienced professors and researchers are aware of the most authentic reference and research literature, and the sources of their availability. These include reference work/books; experiential notes available as monographs or occasional papers or simply teacher notes available at university website; research work published in refereed journals, available as OER, or as research monograph, and problem-based accounts written by teachers, researchers, students, graduates, among others and available as blogs, web postings or experiencial papers published in journals and newspapers. The major sources of such literature include various Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Survey of Educational Research (CASE, MSU/NCERT), Dissertation Abstracts, OER Search Engines. Some of the sites for authentic OER include those of UNESCO and MERLOT, among others. A survey of these literature facilitates location of ‘suggestions for further research’ in those literature which can further ignite the mind of the researcher to ponder over possible research problem and research title. While examining the related research studies, the researcher may also locate and jot down the limitations of research design, sampling procedure as also any contradictory findings which necessitate to re-examine the phenomenon/research problem in different contexts.

Theories

While examining the related and authentic reference works, the researcher may examine description and analysis of theoretical and/or conceptual frameworks which could have been drawn from cognate disciplines of philosophy, psychology, sociology, and the field of education itself. These theoretical frameworks may also suggest and motivate the researcher to proceed exploration of a particular variable or problem area.

Personal Experience

It is all the more essential that the researcher interacts with teachers, peers, and even students to obtain if some area of research or some type of research problems are worth examining further. The researcher may personally encounter sparkling ideas while engaged in various tasks and problems relating to curriculum design, teaching-learning, assessment and evaluation, among others. This could, at the least, lead to conduct of some action-research which every teacher is required to undertake as a reflective practitioner/reflective professional. One’s own developmental work as also those of others get further disseminated in seminars and conferences which one should attend from time to time and tap recent development in the chosen field of research. Another source of encountering authentic and practical experience is interaction with the community and ascertaining any constraints faced by them. This may lead to further crystalisation of a research problem and research investigation.

Socio-Economic-Political-Technological Changes

As we remain alert in respect of what is happening around us, in our country as also globally, we encounter significant changes in social dynamics/social order, emergence of new social issues, economic upheavals in local markets as also in international trade, changes in political dynamics leading to changes in educational policies and regulations, and also changes in technology and especially ICT and social technologies and social networks. These changes both provide for ample research problems to further investigate as also enlighten and motivate the researcher to proceed to conduct a piece of research

Psychology

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Sources of Research Problems

Ideas for research problems or topics can arise from a range of sources such as personal or professional experience, a theory, the media, or other research studies.

Personal or professional experience

Everyday personal or professional experience may lead us to identify a problem for which we would like a solution. Alternatively, we may encounter a question or questions that we would like to try and answer.

For example, on a personal level, you may prefer the taste of organically produced vegetables and thus wonder if people in general prefer the taste of organically produced vegetables to those produced non-organically. The research topic is a study into taste preferences and the question 'do people in general prefer the taste of organically produced vegetables to those produced non-organically?' Alternatively, for example, as a professional nature reserve warden you may want to encourage the establishment and spread of a particular plant species because you know it is a food source for a rare butterfly. The research problem may be, 'how do I encourage the spread of the plant species of interest?'

Theory

Theories are ideas about how things relate to each other. Theories may be general, commonly held beliefs (such as, domestic cats are the cause of a decline in bird numbers in UK gardens) or more technical ideas (for example, that global warming is causing a change to the timing of the seasonal responses of the flowering cherry tree in the UK).

There are many ways of expressing theories, some are very formal, others are informal. Here are some examples:

• Keynes' statement that ... 'men are disposed as a rule and on average, to increase their consumption as their income increases, but not as much as the increase in their income ...' is a theory.

• The idea that distance learners have different needs than on-campus students is a theory.

• A hunch that crossing two particular strains of maize will produce a more drought-tolerant variety is a theory.

• The assumption that every species has a fundamental niche, is a theory.

Theories may be useful in suggesting interesting questions and generally guiding fieldwork, but should not restrict us from exploring alternative explanations. The end result of the research process is knowledge.

Literature and the media

There are many sources of literature, such as books, journal articles, and newspapers. When searching and reading literature it is possible to encounter gaps in information and knowledge, and problems for which there is currently no solution. These may provide a good basis for research. We are also flooded with information presented by the media, such as television, which again might give rise to research ideas.

Statistics

Percentiles are a measure of the relative standing of observation within a data. Percentiles divide a set of observations into 100 equal parts, and percentile scores are frequently used to report results from national standardized tests such as NAT, GAT, etc.

The pth percentile is the value Y(p) in order statistic such that p percent of the values are less than the value Y(p) and (100-p) percent of the values are greater Y(p) . The 5th percentile is denoted by P5, the 10th by P10 and 95th by P95.

Percentiles for the ungrouped data

To calculate percentiles (a measure of the relative standing of an observation) for the ungrouped data, adopt the following procedure

Order the observation

For the mth percentile, determine the product m.n100. If m.n100 is not an integer, round it up and find the corresponding ordered value and if m.n100 is an integer, say k, then calculate the mean of the Kth and (k+1)th ordered observations.

Example: For the following height data collected from students find the 10th and 95th percentiles. 91, 89, 88, 87, 89, 91, 87, 92, 90, 98, 95, 97, 96, 100, 101, 96, 98, 99, 98, 100, 102, 99, 101, 105, 103, 107, 105, 106, 107, 112.

Solution: The ordered observations of the data are 87, 87, 88, 89, 89, 90, 91, 91, 92, 95, 96, 96, 97, 98, 98, 98, 99, 99, 100, 100, 101, 101, 102, 103, 105, 105, 106, 107, 107, 112.

P10=10×30100=3

So the 10th percentile i.e  P10 is 3rd observation in sorted data is 88, means that 10 percent of the observations in data set are less than 88.

P95=95×30100=28.5

29th observation is our 95th percentile i.e. P95=107.

Statistics

The cumulative percentage curve or ogive differs from the cumulative

frequency graph in that frequencies are expressed as cumulative percents

of N on the Y axis instead of as cumulative frequencies

Philosophy

योगश्चित्तवृत्तिनिरोध:

Yoga's chita virti nirodha, This sutra states that, "The practice of yoga controls the fluctuation (thought) of mind(Chitta)".

The cause of mind fluctuation are thoughts. 

These thoughts are very subtle and the root cause of all karma. These thoughts are the seeds which germinates many "EMOTIONS". These emotions influence the "DRISHTA"(Soul) to do "KARMA"(action). 

The Karma is itself a yog. We have to do karma for our existence. It is done by mind, speech and action. These karma return as the outcome of "Bhagya"(Destiny). 

The Destiny makes our personality. Our personality shows our "INDIVIDUALITY". This is a whole process which arises from a tiny thought. 

Yog is a journey of Sadhana that cleanse the mind, removes all the unnecessary thoughts over the mind to reach our original self. Yog cleanse every layers of thoughts one by one to express our original form "Dhrishta".

The Dhrishta is a pure form of being. It is free from all bondages of sorrow, emotions and pains. Yog expresses the true form of Dhrishta which is only happen when the thoughts are silence, calm and steady. Even if, The thoughts may steady for few minutes through yog. Yog naturally quiets the fluctuation the mind.

As we know, "As the mind so the being".  

When the mind is silent the being is able to feel itself and gain its true power of "ISHWARA".  

At last, There is a bridge between Dhrishta and Ishwara which we called  YOG. 

Hence, the yog bring control over the fluctuation of mind which is called "योगश्चित्तवृत्तिनिरोध:".(Dr. Manish Solanki) SHISHYAKULAM YOGA SHALA

Branches of philosophy

Metaphysics

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that considers the physical universe and the nature of ultimate reality. It asks questions like, What is real? What is the origin of the world? What is beyond the stars? Your consideration of reality as an external creation or an internal construct can influence your metaphysical beliefs and perspectives and your teaching. Regardless of your definition of reality, the exploration and categorization of the physical universe form the foundation of several school subjects.

Epistemology

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that considers how people come to learn what they know.

Derived from the Greek word episteme, meaning knowledge or understanding, epistemology refers to the nature and origin of knowledge and truth. Epistemology proposes that there are four main bases of knowledge: divine revelation, experience, logic and reason, and intuition. These influence how teaching, learning, and understanding come about in the classroom.

Axiology

Axiology is the branch of philosophy that considers the study of principles and values. These values are divided into two main kinds: ethics and aesthetics. Ethics is the questioning of morals and personal values. Aesthetics is the examination of what is beautiful, enjoyable, or tasteful. In axiology education is more than just about knowledge but also quality of life.

Logic

INTRODUCTION

       Great men leave behind them a scintillating trail of their glorious deeds which inspire the coming generations. India is fortunate to be the birthplace of eminent sons like Mahatma Gandhi, Rabindranath   Tagore ,Aurobindo Ghose, swami Vivekananda and  a galaxy of others ,each of  whom in his own way, tried to raise the  name of the motherland to such spiritual heights not known  before in the   history  of the  country since the advent of the British.

            No doubt, geniuses are born. But the flowering of the multifaceted personality of Rabindranath Tagore was the result of interaction of a variety of favorable environmental factors in producing the genius. The contribution of Rabindranath Tagore in this respect as well as in other fields, especially in education, has been paramount. In the galaxy of modern educational thinkers the name of Rebindranath Tagore, popularly known as “Gurudev”, is famous not only in our country for his contribution in the field of education, but all over the world. One of the most striking features of his educational thinking is that he considered education as the most effective tool for modernizing Indian agricultural.

Tagore; A Brief Life Sketch

          The myriad minded genius and Asia’s first Nobel Laureate, Rabindranath Tagore is the philosopher who imprinted some thought providing ideas on my mind. Tagore was born on 7th may 1861 in Calcutta as the fourteenth son of Maharishi Devendranath. He had early education at home by a tutor. He attended University College in London, but returned before completing his studies. He developed taste for English literature and he was only twenty when his first collection of poems was published. His writings include more than one thousand poems and two thousand songs in addition to a large number of novels, short stories, dramas and philosophical tests. It was at the age of forty that he started a school of his own in Bengal. In this school he gave name and local habitation to his dynamic idealism. The school known as Shantiniketan Ashram, became in 1921 the world famous Vishwaharati a seat of International University seeking to develop a basis on which the culture of the east and west may meet in common fellowship.

          In 1909 his world famous work Gitanjali was published and he went to England in1912 with it. Next year he was   awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. The Calcutta and the oxford university’s conferring honored him by conferring on him the honorary degree of doctorate.  He made notable contributions to religious and educational thought, politics and social reform, moral regeneration and economic reconstruction. Thus Gurudev, the poet Laureate of India, a great thinker, philosopher and a teacher, staunch patriot, and above all a noble heart who lived the whole humanity- a perfect man the bard of Bengal died on 7th August, 1941                               

TAGORE’S PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy of Humanism: Tagore observed, “The best and noblest gifts of humanity cannot be the monopoly, of a particular race or country”.

Synthesis of culture:  Tagore said, before we are in a position to stand in comparison with the other cultures of the world or try to cooperate with them. We must bare our own culture on a synthesis   of all the different cultures we have.

True culture: Culture brings fulfillment from the depths of the self to the faculties and aptitudes of a man as a whole; under its influence man spontaneously attains an all-round fulfillment and the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake and the enthusiasm for unselfish action become natural. True culture sets greater store by natural courtesy than mechanical observance of custom and convention. A cultured man will rather injure than humiliate himself. To be envious of others success is to humiliate himself.

Tagore – A Universalist: As a messenger of freedom of mind and peace, Tagore has expressed his feelings in the following verses.

“Where the mind is without fear

And the head is held high,

Where knowledge is free.

Where the world has not been broken in to

Fragments by narrow domestic walls,

…….        ………            …….

Into that heaven of freedom, my father

Let my country awake”

 MAJOR IDEAS OF TAGORE

       I am deeply influenced by the mystical and spiritual overtones underneath Tagore’s writings especially of “Gitanjali” with its lyricism and untranslatable delicacies. It is his own perception of life that is reflected in his creative works and philosophical and educational ideas. As a naturalist he gave importance to nature. In his view, both man and nature are the creations of one and the same God. This will naturally strengthen spiritual relationships between the two. Thus his naturalism was different from the one advocated by Rousseau. The different thought being that Tagore’s naturalism was based on humanism. Love and       harmony among all the things that exist in nature was the basis of his philosophy.      

          Tagore was a realist and an idealist too. According to Dr.Ratha Krishnan, the soul of ancient India is mirrored in Tagore’s writings. It embodies all the ancient ideals of religion, philosophy and art. As a true religious in spirit, his spiritual journey was guided by the Upanishads, the traditional Hindu spiritual scriptures. He speaks of the immanent Brahman, the supreme reality, an all – suffusing force that transcends personality and any sort of description. The idea is that all things in the cosmos are only temporal manifestations of Brahman. Tagore exhorts, let us find god, let us live for the ultimate truth which emancipates us from the bondage of the dust and gives as the wealth, not of things but of inner urge, not of power, but of love”.

           An implicit philosophy can be seen in Tagore’s poetry. The main literary device by means of which Tagore communicated his religio – philosophical views was that of bridal mysticism. The entails seeing oneself as the bride of God with a submission to and adoration of the divine bridegroom. A powerful Hindu thinker, his Upanishadic notions permeate his works and he has been elevated in the minds of Indians to a sort of poet – sage.

          According to Tagore, the aim of education is self realization. It means the realization of universal soul in one’s self. It is a process which cannot be realized without education. He synthesizes the ancient Vedantic traditions with the modern western scientific attitude in formulating the goal of education.

TAGORE’S VIEWS ON DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF EDUCATION

          The aim of education according to Tagore is creative self expression through physical, mental, aesthetic and moral development. He stressed the need for developing empathy and sensitivity and the necessity for an intimate relationship with one’s cultural and natural environment. He saw education as a vehicle for appreciating the richest aspects of other cultures, while maintaining one’s own cultural specificity.

1.  Meaning of education: Education is short of the highest purpose of man, the fullest growth and freedom of soul. To the child, the environment will provide an ever-ready back ground for its spontaneous activity. Our true education is possible only in the forest through intimate correct with nature.                       

2.  Freedom of mind: The objective of education is the freedom of mind, which can only be achieved through the path of education.

3.  Children as children: It is a mistake to judge by the standards of grownups. Adults ignore the gifts of children and insist that children must learn through the same process as they do. This man’s most cruel and most wasteful mistake. Children’s subconscious mind is more active than their conscious intelligence.

4.  Discipline and Freedom: Living ideals cannot be set into clockwork arrangement. Tagore wrote, I never said to them; don’t do this, or don’t do that……. I never punish them.            

          An ideal school is an Ashram where men have gathered for the highest end of life. Tagore observed to give spiritual culture to our boys was my principal objective in starting my school at Bolepur.

5.  Living contact between the teacher and the taught:  In teaching, the guiding should be personal love based on human relations. In education, the teacher is more important than the method. The teacher is Guru. He is to guide and stimulate the students. He remarked, a teacher can never truly teach unless he is still learning himself. A lamb can   never light another lamb unless it continues to burn in its own flame. So a teacher must always be teacher.

TAGORE’S CONTRIBUTION TO MODERN EDUCATION                    

         Tagore    was   fully dissatisfied with   the prevalent system of education at that time and called the schools as factories of role learning. Then he advocated         the principle of freedom for an effective education. He said that the children should be given freedom so that they are able to grow and develop as per their own wishes. A man through the process of education should be able to come out as a harmonious individual in time with his social set-up of life. He suggested creative self- expression through craft, music, drawing and drama.

                                              

          Tagore’s major contribution to modern education is the establishment of shantinikethan at Bolepur, in 1901.the school which was modeled on the ancient ashrams grew into a world university called Viswa Bharati. It is an abode of peace where teachers and students live together in a spirit of perfect comradeship. The motto of the institution is’ where the whole world forms its one single nest. It has open spaces and atmosphere of freedom surrounded by natural environment. It is open to, all irrespective of country, race, religion, or politics. It is centered around simple living and high thinking and has spiritual and religious atmosphere.

                   Tagore advocated teaching while talking as the best method and stressed on tours and excursions. He supported teaching and learning through   debates and discussions which develop the power of clear-cut thinking. He adopted activity method which makes the learner physically sound. He also held heuristic method where the student is in the position of a discoverer. He stressed on free environment which makes learner self- disciplined.

                   In Tagore’ philosophy of education, the aesthetic development of the sense was us important as the intellectual; and music; literature; art, and dance were given great prominence in the daily life of the school.                  

                    

SANTHINIKETAN AND VISWA BHARATHI

              As an alternative to the existing forms of education, he started A small School of education in 1901.later this school was developed into a university and rural reconstruction centre, known as Viswa Bharati, where he tried to develop an alternative model of education that stemmed from his own learning experience. Students at Santhiniketan were encouraged to create their own publications and put out several illustrated magazines. The children were encouraged to follow their ideas in painting and drawing and to draw inspirations from the many visiting artists and writers. The main characteristics of the Santhiniketan School are the following.    

·        It is a community school where there is no distinction of caste and creed.

·        Co-educational and residential institution.

·        It is a self governing institution – has a dairy farm ,post office ,hospital and workshop.

·         It is based on the concept of freedom of the mind.

·        Mother tongue is the medium of instruction.

·        It is studied in natural surroundings and it provides for manual labor.

·        There is well- equipped library.                    

          Rabindranath Tagore envisioned as a learning centre where conflicting interests are minimized, where individuals work together in common pursuit of truth and realize that artists in all parts of the world have created forms of beauty, scientists discovered the secrets of the universe, philosophers solved the problems of existence, saints made the truth of the spiritual world organic in their own lives, not merely for some particular race to which they belong, but for all mankind.

Tagore’s concept of a teacher

             In Tagore’s educational philosophy we observe the infusion of traditionalism and modernism, orientalism as well as western thought. His concept of a teacher was not an exception to the very fact. On the one hand he wanted the ‘guru’ to be an ideal and authority for his disciples, on the other hand he wanted a teacher to be a stage - setter or facilitator as the modern educationalist also suggest.

         A teacher according to Tagore’s concept is continuously a learner who is dynamic in his efforts to know the unknown and to let it be known to others.

         Ravindranath condemn any teacher who had lost the desire to know and learn and only mechanically repeated his lessons.  He said, “if the teacher does not himself posses learning how can he impact to be others? The teacher, who merely repeats bookish information mechanically, can never teach anything and can never inspire, and without proper inspiration independent creative faculties can never develop”.

             Thus, Ravindranath offered a highly dignified and responsible role to teachers.

 RELEVANCE OF TAGORE’S EDUCATIONAL THOUGHTS IN   INDIAN EDUCATION

                Tagore is critical of the prevalent   system of education which lays role emphasis upon bookish learning. The intellectual aim of education, according to him, is the development of the intellectual faculties’ which should be developed through education. These are the power of thinking and of imagination.

          Tagore’s educational ideas have been shared by other educationists and many of his innovations have now become part of general educational practices, but his special contribution lay in the emphasis on harmony balance and total development of personality.

           The visionary and the great educationist in Tagore solved the problem of today as far back as fifty years. Economic forces compel the teachers of today to look for pupils, but in the natural order of ting it is the pupil who should look for the teacher.  The teacher student relationship designed by Tagore is a model in this context. It became one of earliest coeducational programs in South Asia. It’s establishment led to pioneering efforts in many directions, including model for Indian higher education and mass education as well as pan Asian and global cultural exchange. As one of the earliest educators to think in terms of the global   village, Tagore’s educational model has a unique sensitivity and aptness for education within multi-racial, multi-lingual and multi-cultural situations amidst conditions of acknowledged economic discrepancy, political imbalance and social evils.

A CRITIQUE OF TAGORE.

          Rabindranath Tagore, in his own person was a living icon of the type of mutuality and creative exchange that he advocated. He deliberated on different problems of Indian society particularly that of the rural people and tried to remove them through education. His educational system was a synthesis of East and West, Ancient and Modern, Science and Vedanta although he protested against the emphasis on foreign language. He was one of the first Indian to argue for a humane educational system that was in touch with the environment and aimed at over-all development of educational system on essential human virtues like freedom, purity, sympathy, perfection and world brotherhood.

CONCLUSION

       Rabindnathra Tagore, by his efforts and achievements, is part of a global network of pioneering educators such as Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Frobel, Montessori, Dewey and in the contemporary context, Malcolm Knowles. Although Tagore is a superb representative of his country –the man who wrote its national anthem, he is truly a man of the whole earth, a product of the best of both traditionals Indian and modern western cultures. The core of Tagore’s educational philosophy was learning from nature, music and life. He created Sanhiniketan to realize his educational ideals. This is the reason why his education is easily acceptable by human mind. Tagore extended the meaning and functional importance of certain aspects of personality as nobody else had done before him. The ideal educator must combine in himself the gifts of a philosopher, a poet, a mystic, a social reformer, a scientist and a veritable man of action  can he has to take into account all types of men  and their aspirations ,all facets of the human personality, all levels man’s experience, all fields of endeavor and achievement.

Philosophy

HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHIES

John Dewey Biography

Philosopher and Educator

Written by Kendra Cherry Updated on July 04, 2018

"I believe that education, therefore, is a process of living and not a preparation for future living." - John Dewey, My Pedagogic Creed (1897)

Major Contributions

John Dewey was an American philosopher and educator who helped found pragmatism, a philosophical school of thought that was popular at the beginning of the 20th century. He was also instrumental in the progressive movement in education, strongly believing that the best education involves learning through doing.

Life

John Dewey was born October 20, 1859, in Burlington, Vermont. He died June 1, 1952, in New York City, New York.

Career

John Dewey graduated from the University of Vermont and spent three years as a high school teacher in Oil City, Pennsylvania. He then spent a year studying under the guidance of G. Stanley Hall at John Hopkins University in America's first psychology lab. After earning his Ph.D. from John Hopkins, Dewey went on to teach at the University of Michigan for nearly a decade.

In 1894, Dewey accepted a position as the chairman of the department of philosophy, psychology, and pedagogy at the University of Chicago. It was at the University of Chicago that Dewey began to formalize his views that would contribute so heavily to the school of thought known as pragmatism. The central tenant of pragmatism is that the value, truth or meaning of an idea lies in its practical consequences. Dewey also helped establish the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools, where he was able to directly apply his pedagogical theories.

Dewey eventually left the University of Chicago and became a professor of philosophy at Columbia University from 1904 until his retirement in 1930. In 1905, he became President of the American Psychological Association.

Contributions to Psychology

Dewey's work had a vital influence on psychology, education, and philosophy and he is often considered one of the greatest thinkers of the 20th century. His emphasis on progressive education has contributed greatly to the use of experimentation rather than an authoritarian approach to knowledge. Dewey was also a prolific writer, publishing over 1,000 books, essays, and articles on a wide range of subjects including education, art, nature, philosophy, religion, culture, ethics and democracy over his 65-year writing career.

Educational Philosophy

Dewey firmly believed that education should not just be teachers making students learn mindless facts that they would soon forget. He thought it should be a journey of experiences, building upon each other to create and understand new experiences.

Dewey also felt that schools tried to create a world separate from students' lives. School activities and the life experiences of the students should be connected, Dewey believed, or else real learning would be impossible. Cutting students off from their psychological ties, i.e., society and family, would make their learning journeys less meaningful and thereby make learning less memorable. Likewise, schools also needed to prepare students for life in society by socializing them. 

Selected Publications

The School and Society (1900)

The Child and the Curriculum (1902)

How We Think (1910)

Experience and Nature (1925)

Philosophy and Civilization (1931)

Knowing and the Known (1949)

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Philosophy

Education’s Impact on Individualism

Julie Melnyk - Student

Jun 5, 2017 · 4 min read

Educational purpose of each individual student is to grow and develop into the most successful they can be. The American education system challenges individuality yet is needed to expand knowledge in our students.

Education, on a specific scale, is given to students who stare blankly back at teachers who drone on about semi-useless topics, they most likely have no interest in. The blank faced students all are the same. The education system has rigged them all to act, think, and talk the same.

The social normality of a student is to wake up bright an early, before our biological clock even has a chance to cope, maybe down a few cups of coffee if time allows. Then drag themselves into whatever transportation is available to conduct them to school. After about seven hours of brain draining work, they maybe have the chance to participate in sports, clubs and activities after classes. The daily grind leaves little time to hang out with friends like an average kid could do, impacting social connections. When the days over, students are exhausted. Education can be good if enforced upon children effectively however if not, can result in negative consequences for both the student and teacher.

Talk to almost any American student and they’ll say “School is prison”. But maybe not like that exactly because they’re too polite. Or they’ve already been brainwashed by the system to think that school is their second home. Students are made to tiptoe around the idea that school is prison, to be careful what they say. Ironically in both school and prison, the inmate must comply to all rules or face consequences if broken.

In America, children are given the opportunity to attend school for a public education. Being educated, even on simple theorem is a gift not everyone has access to. Yet our students still cannot fathom a likeable idea of school.

The task is to find out why students whom given the opportunities they have, the ability to be so lucky to hold an education, start to loose the drive to further their education. Why don’t kids like school? It’s not because they’re taking the education system for granted but that the system is taking our students for granted.

The system does this by never getting a full understanding of their student’s cognitive principles. They don’t learn what they like or what interest them. The education systems assumes they can find one way to morph their students early on in education so that they remain easily teachable for generations.

Education, defined by Google, is an enlightening experience. The broad term leaves room to discover and explore all ideas and expressions, without limitations. However on a smaller, more local scale, education to students is just simply learning to learn. Learning the same concepts and ideas as the generations before. Learning skills, that each student poses, forming that perfect, cookie cutter student.

The skills we gain as students do not vary. The skills taught in English class are the same taught in History, even Algebra. It is all based around the idea of problem solving. Find the problem, identify it, think about it for a few, then solve it. But when every student is taught the same skills, there is no room for variation or creative work to strive. Not to bash the skills taught in school, because they are important to be taught no matter the level of intelligence a person has. However students are never encouraged to go at the problem their own way, discover a way that works for them as an individual.

The example of the five paragraph essay model demonstrates this. From a young age, students are forced to write with only five paragraphs, if they go beyond, they do not meet the standards and could flunk just for a creative risk. The essay model makes all students write the same. Sure this is great when it comes to time constraints, like getting 100 papers graded by a deadline, but it limits creativity. Teaching methods do not stimulate innovation

Trends and issues

Open-source software (OSS) is a type of computer software in which source code is released under a license in which the copyright holder grants users the rights to study, change, and distribute the software to anyone and for any purpose.[1] Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. Open-source software is a prominent example of open collaboration.[2]

Open-source software development can bring in diverse perspectives beyond those of a single company. A 2008 report by the Standish Group stated that adoption of open-source software models have resulted in savings of about $60 billion (£48 billion) per year for consumers.[3][4]

History Edit

Further information: History of free and open-source software

End of 1990s: Foundation of the Open Source Initiative Edit

In the early days of computing, programmers and developers shared software in order to learn from each other and evolve the field of computing. Eventually, the open-source notion moved to the way side of commercialization of software in the years 1970–1980. However, academics still often developed software collaboratively. For example, Donald Knuth in 1979 with the TeX typesetting system[5] or Richard Stallman in 1983 with the GNU operating system.[6] In 1997, Eric Raymond published The Cathedral and the Bazaar, a reflective analysis of the hacker community and free-software principles. The paper received significant attention in early 1998, and was one factor in motivating Netscape Communications Corporation to release their popular Netscape Communicator Internet suite as free software. This source code subsequently became the basis behind SeaMonkey, Mozilla Firefox, Thunderbird and KompoZer.

Netscape's act prompted Raymond and others to look into how to bring the Free Software Foundation's free software ideas and perceived benefits to the commercial software industry. They concluded that FSF's social activism was not appealing to companies like Netscape, and looked for a way to rebrand the free software movement to emphasize the business potential of sharing and collaborating on software source code.[7] The new term they chose was "open source", which was soon adopted by Bruce Perens, publisher Tim O'Reilly, Linus Torvalds, and others. The Open Source Initiative was founded in February 1998 to encourage use of the new term and evangelize open-source principles.[8]

While the Open Source Initiative sought to encourage the use of the new term and evangelize the principles it adhered to, commercial software vendors found themselves increasingly threatened by the concept of freely distributed software and universal access to an application's source code. A Microsoft executive publicly stated in 2001 that "open source is an intellectual property destroyer. I can't imagine something that could be worse than this for the software business and the intellectual-property business."[9] However, while Free and open-source software has historically played a role outside of the mainstream of private software development, companies as large as Microsoft have begun to develop official open-source presences on the Internet. IBM, Oracle, Google and State Farm are just a few of the companies with a serious public stake in today's competitive open-source market. There has been a significant shift in the corporate philosophy concerning the development of FOSS.[10]

The free-software movement was launched in 1983. In 1998, a group of individuals advocated that the term free software should be replaced by open-source software (OSS) as an expression which is less ambiguous[11][12][13] and more comfortable for the corporate world.[14] Software developers may want to publish their software with an open-source license, so that anybody may also develop the same software or understand its internal functioning. With open-source software, generally anyone is allowed to create modifications of it, port it to new operating systems and instruction set architectures, share it with others or, in some cases, market it. Scholars Casson and Ryan have pointed out several policy-based reasons for adoption of open source – in particular, the heightened value proposition from open source (when compared to most proprietary formats) in the following categories:

Security

Affordability

Transparency

Perpetuity

Interoperability

Flexibility

Localization – particularly in the context of local governments (who make software decisions). Casson and Ryan argue that "governments have an inherent responsibility and fiduciary duty to taxpayers" which includes the careful analysis of these factors when deciding to purchase proprietary software or implement an open-source option.[15]

The Open Source Definition presents an open-source philosophy and further defines the terms of use, modification and redistribution of open-source software. Software licenses grant rights to users which would otherwise be reserved by copyright law to the copyright holder. Several open-source software licenses have qualified within the boundaries of the Open Source Definition. The most prominent and popular example is the GNU General Public License (GPL), which "allows free distribution under the condition that further developments and applications are put under the same licence", thus also free.[16]

The open source label came out of a strategy session held on April 7, 1998 in Palo Alto in reaction to Netscape's January 1998 announcement of a source code release for Navigator (as Mozilla). A group of individuals at the session included Tim O'Reilly, Linus Torvalds, Tom Paquin, Jamie Zawinski, Larry Wall, Brian Behlendorf, Sameer Parekh, Eric Allman, Greg Olson, Paul Vixie, John Ousterhout, Guido van Rossum, Philip Zimmermann, John Gilmore and Eric S. Raymond.[17] They used the opportunity before the release of Navigator's source code to clarify a potential confusion caused by the ambiguity of the word "free" in English.

Many people claimed that the birth of the Internet, since 1969, started the open-source movement, while others do not distinguish between open-source and free software movements.[18]

The Free Software Foundation (FSF), started in 1985, intended the word "free" to mean freedom to distribute (or "free as in free speech") and not freedom from cost (or "free as in free beer"). Since a great deal of free software already was (and still is) free of charge, such free software became associated with zero cost, which seemed anti-commercial.[7]

The Open Source Initiative (OSI) was formed in February 1998 by Eric Raymond and Bruce Perens. With at least 20 years of evidence from case histories of closed software development versus open development already provided by the Internet developer community, the OSI presented the "open source" case to commercial businesses, like Netscape. The OSI hoped that the use of the label "open source", a term suggested by Christine Peterson[6][19] of the Foresight Institute at the strategy session, would eliminate ambiguity, particularly for individuals who perceive "free software" as anti-commercial. They sought to bring a higher profile to the practical benefits of freely available source code, and they wanted to bring major software businesses and other high-tech industries into open source. Perens attempted to register "open source" as a service mark for the OSI, but that attempt was impractical by trademark standards. Meanwhile, due to the presentation of Raymond's paper to the upper management at Netscape—Raymond only discovered when he read the press release,[20] and was called by Netscape CEO Jim Barksdale's PA later in the day—Netscape released its Navigator source code as open source, with favorable results.[21]

Philosophy

DEMOCRACY AND EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

DEMOCRACY:

Democracy in its  purest or most ideal form would be a society in which all adult citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. Democracy is usually considered as “the government of the people, by the people and for the people”

                According to Henderson, “democracy is based on two assumptions: the infinite value and worth of human personality and belief that men are capable of managing their own affairs in such a way as to promote the welfare of all and that, therefore, they should have the freedom to do so”

                The term democracy come from the Greek word “demokratia” meaning “rule of the people”  which was coined from “demos” meaning “people” and “kratos” meaning “power”. The word democracy on the one hand, points towards the type of the government and on the other way a way of life.

                In a democratic government there are provided free opportunities for the self expression to an individual. Dewey is of the opinion that in democracy besides the form of the government something else is involved. This is mainly the way of life for good living which is based on experience. Bode considers democracy as “a way of life” and by way of life he means “a determining influence in every major area of life”

                From the political point of view, democracy means “the government of the people, by the people and for the people”. In democracy the government is formed by the majority but the rights of the minority are not ignored.

                In the economic sphere democracy means that each individual should be given freedom to earn his own living through his own efforts.

                Democracy is taken in the social sense, when there are no impediments in the progress of any race, class or religion. The meaning of this is that for all the people there should be equal opportunities so that they may become good citizens.

PRE-CONDITIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL DEMOCRACY:-

                Democracy believes in giving independence to the people. But if the people are not educated and are not discipline for social good then this independence would be very costly and would take the form of anarchy. For the success of democracy some pre conditions are very necessary. They are,

1.       There should be economic betterment of the people. Democracy cannot be established on the hungry stomachs of the people.

2.       The second pre condition is the formation of an educated electorate. Democracy can function properly when the people are educated and they are conscious of their rights and duties.

EDUCATION FOR DEMOCRACY:-

For the success of democracy it is essential that each individual owns his responsibilities consciously and this will be possible only when the individuals power of understanding is high and he is of  good character. It is the duty of the society that it should prepare the individual from intellectual moral and physical point of view to discharge hi duties of citizenship. So that the society may remain happy and rich. The main features of education are usually sited as two fold. Firstly, it is to transmit the social and cultural heritage to the new generation. (example through schools). The second function of education is to create among the students a feeling of adjustment to the environment. The school should develop all the qualities among the children which are desirable in a good citizen. This qualities includes,

1.       Self realization

2.       Human relationship

3.       Economic efficiency

4.       Civic responsibility

True education for democracy should help the people to appreciate the urgent necessity of acquiring knowledge to discriminate between facts and prejudices, to weigh and judge efficiencies, to arrive at conclusions.

THE RESPONSIBILITY OF FORMAL AND INFORMAL AGENCIES FOR DEMOCRATIC EDUCATION:-

    �

Philosophy

SOCIALISM AND EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

Introduction:

The word socialism was first used during the early years of the 19th century but many philosophers and reformers in the past expressed this resentment against inequalities in society and proposed the concept of an egalitarian society. But no pragmatic programs were put forwarded by them during this period. The French revolution of 1789 with its promise of equality provided a new impetus to socialist ideas. It was during the beginning of industrial revolution that the socialist ideas began to emerge as distinct and powerful concept. It was during the early decade of the 19th century the powerful socialist ideas developed different parts of France. St.Simon, Charles Furrier, Robert Owen, Louis Blanc and others proposed their ideas of socialism and Marx and Engels put forwarded their theory of Socialism and communism during the later half of the 19th century.

                Most of the systems were Utopian which were not supported by powerful movement and strong theoretical background. But Marx and Engels attacked the Utopian ideas through their works and uphold the course of scientific socialism. Through the theory and class struggle and dialetic materialism, they believed that socialism is a historic necessity. They not only provided the theoretical back ground for socialism and communism but actively involved in the formation of working class organization in the different part of Europe.

                Socialism is a political economical theory of social organization which advocates that the means of production, distribution and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole.

                In some respects it differs from communism. In fact the goal of the both is the same, ie the establishment of classless society, but there is a difference in them regarding the means of realizing the goal. Communism wants to establish a socialistic society through force or revolution. It does not accept the dialectism and materialism of communism. It believes in liberalism and idealism.

                Like communism, socialism is also against capitalism. But instead of snatching the capital from the capitalists it wants to persuade them intelligently to give up the same in democratic manner in favour of the general people. It stands for a mixed economy. It wants that the means of production  should be equitably distributed amongst all. It does not want that a major portion of the national income should go in the hands of a few. It wants that the state should control the big industries but at the same time private enterprises, too, should be allowed to exist. In the same way it does not want to abolish the rights of private property, but it wants to reorganize and delimit.

                The socialism believes in the power of ballets in place of bullets. It strives to win freedom for the workers through the majority vote in their favours. Socialism wants to establish a welfare state in order that each one may get equal opportunity for development. It stands for individual liberty. It does not want to impose any measure which may be hindrance in the individual freedom. In this respect it believes in democratic methods. It recognizes the importance of manual labour and wants to improve the conditions of labourers both in rural and urban areas. It does not stands for the rules of the working class, but wants the government elected through the popular votes.

Main features of Socialism:

1.       Socialism aims at establishing a classless society

2.       Socialism aims at social justice, equality and the complete supremacy of the state

3.       Socialism aims at abolishing the capitalist system

4.       It aims at the active participation of the individual in the productive process of the society

5.       It has little faith in the religious ideas and faith

6.       Socialism ignores spiritual values

Indian concept of Socialism:

                Gandhiji, Jawaharlal Nehru, Jaiprakash Narayan, are the greatest supporters of socialism. Gandhiji saw socialism as a wa

Triangulation

Triangulation

Synonyms:

Confirming, Reinforcing, Rejecting

Triangulation facilitates validation of data through cross verification from more than two sources. It tests the consistency of findings obtained through different instruments and increases the chance to control, or at least assess, some of the threats or multiple causes influencing our results.

Triangulation is not just about validation but about deepening and widening one’s understanding. It can be used to produce innovation in conceptual framing. It can lead to multi-perspective meta-interpretations.[Triangulation is an] attempt to map out, or explain more fully, the richness and complexity of human behaviour by studying it from more than one standpoint? - Cohen and Manion

Types

Denzin (1973, p.301) proposes four basic types of triangulation:

• Data triangulation: involves time, space, and persons
  
• Investigator triangulation: involves multiple researchers in an investigation
  
• Theory triangulation: involves using more than one theoretical scheme in the interpretation of the phenomenon
  
• Methodological triangulation: involves using more than one option to gather data, such as interviews, observations, questionnaires, and documents.
  

Reasons for triangulation

Carvalho and White (1997) propose four reasons for undertaking triangulation:

• Enriching: The outputs of different informal and formal instruments add value to each other by explaining  different aspects of an issue
  
• Refuting: Where one set of options disproves a hypothesis generated by another set of options.
  
• Confirming: Where one set of options confirms a hypothesis generated by another set of options
  
• Explaining: Where one set of options sheds light on unexpected findings derived from another set of options.
  
• Triangulation to minimize bias
  
• The problem with relying on just one option is to do with bias. There are several types of bias encountered in research, and triangulation can help with most of them.
  
• Measurement bias – Measurement bias is caused by the way in which you collect data. Triangulation allows you to combine individual and group research options to help reduce bias such as peer pressure on focus group participants.
  
• Sampling bias – Sampling bias is when you don’t cover all of the population you’re studying (omission bias) or you cover only some parts because it’s more convenient (inclusion bias). Triangulation combines the different strengths of these options to ensure you getting sufficient coverage.
  
• Procedural bias – Procedural bias occurs when participants are put under some kind of pressure to provide information. For example, doing “vox pop” style interrupt polls might catch the participants unaware and thus affect their answers. Triangulation allows us to combine short engagements with longer engagements where participants have more time to give considered responses.
  

Educational paradigm

 Introduction

•Selects of the area

•Identifies and defines

•Reviews the literature

•States hypotheses

•Defines the objectives

•Finalizes the research plan

   Research MethodResearch 

methods are of utmost importance in a research process.ParadigmA paradigm provides a conceptual framework for seeing and making sense of thesocial world.Kuhn, 1970(Introduction of the term) "universally recognized scientific achievements that for a time provide model problems and solutions to a community of practitioners" "something like a paradigm is a prerequisite to perception itself".

    Burrell and Morgan (1979) "To be located in a particular paradigm is to view the worldin a particular wayPatton (1990) He terms it as "world view”

The Two Paradigms 

•Quantitative Paradigm

 •Qualitative Paradigm

  Measurement is defined as the assignment of numbers to objects and events according to logically accepted rules( Quantitative approach uses ‘measurement’ as the most precise and universally accepted method for assigning quantitative values( Quantitative research is termed the traditional, positivists, the experimental or empirical tradition by some of the authorities like Comte, Mill, Durkheim, Newton, etc

Quantitative Paradigm

• The measurement uses certain properties ofnumbers while observed phenomena. Theseproperties are described as under: The property of identity The property of order The property of additivity 2
  
•  Qualitative Research Qualitative approach is used in phenomenological inquiry for the verification of proposition, which takes into consideration the totality of phenomenon and does not attempt at analyzing it into quantifiable components. Qualitative research in contrast to quantitative approach is by some regarded as less ‘scientific’ and ‘softer.’ Detailed perspectives of the participants in the ‘naturalistic’ settings.
  

•  Characteristics Quantitative QualitativeApproach Scientific approach. Naturalistic approach. Logical positivism uses Phenomenological quantitative approach in inquiry uses qualitative the verification of approach to the theoretical propositions verification of proposition. Deductive( Top-down Inductive (bottom-up approach) approach) Researcher formulates The researcher generates and uses hypothesis and hypothesis and ground theory with data. the0ry from the data collected during field work.
  

Quantitative 

• QualitativeUnderstanding Based on logical positive Based on paradigm it test specific phenomenological hypothetical paradigm it understands generalization with the phenomenon in narrow angle lens context specific settings in a wide angle and deep angle lensAim Aims at descriptive Aims at description, explanation and exploration and discovery prediction of social using in depth knowledge phenomenonMethod Uses scientific method No sing method; uses a with “hard science” wide range of discrete tapping. strategies and methodsSubject Behavior of the subject Behavior of the subject is under study is assumed to assumed to be fluid, be regular and dynamic, situational, predictable, studied social, contextual, and under controlled personal; studied under condition natural condition
  
•  QuantitativeQualitativeObservation Nature of observation is Nature of observation is objective. subjective.Test items Closed-ended structured Open-ended questionnaires, tests, questionnaires are used as attitude scales, rating test items to obtain in- scales are used depth knowledge.Sampling Probability sampling Purposive sampling is a which depends on the dominant strategy. selection of random and The researcher uses small representative sampling samplesDistance There is much social The researcher is the distance between primary data collection researcher and the subject instrument.“ He has a direct contact with and gets close to people , situation and phenomenon under study.
  
•    Quantitative QualitativeFindings It aims at analysis of The analysis of qualitative representative and date require organizing validated quantitative raw data into logical data through meaningful categories sophisticated statistical and examining them in and software package holistic fashion for interpretation of data There is some Study of real world manipulation of the situation as they unfold variable under controlled naturally without any condition manipulationTime Takes little time to Takes a long deal of time conduct to conduct
  

    Major Types of ResearchesQuantitative Paradigm 

1. Descriptive survey research 

2. Correlation research

 3. Causal-comparative research

 4. Experimental research.

Qualitative Paradigm 

1. Phenomenology. 

2. Ethnography. 

3. Case studies.

 4. Grounded theory

     Merits and Demerits of Quantitative Paradigm

 Merits

 1. The research has statistical reliability 

2. Quantitative research involves quantifications based on numbers. 3. The results of the quantitative research can be generalized. 

4. The use of multivariate methods and analysis is helpful in measuring and controlling the variable or variables which intervene between independent and dependent variables.

   Demerits 

1. Quantitative research uses quantitative data. 

2. It is not always possible to formulate specific hypothetical generalizations. 

3. Involve researcher ‘bias.’ 

4. The primary disadvantage of quantitative research is that issues are measured if they are known prior to beginning of the study, especially in survey research. 5. The selection and use of large samples for drawing reliable statistics involves a lot of efforts in terms of money and man-power.

   Merits and Demerits of Qualitative Paradigm

 Merits

 1. Qualitative research is not a unitary approach. It utilizes a variety of alternative approaches to the traditional, positivistic research. 

2. It utilizes qualitative data which are detailed and descriptive.

 3. Qualitative research is most suitable in the study of human behavior which is fluid, dynamic, situational, social, contextual, and personal 

4. It does not start with advanced formulation of specific deductive hypothesis . 

5. Qualitative research utilizes flexible design and “avoids getting locked into rigid designs.

 6. The researcher has direct and close contact with the people, situation, and phenomenon under study. 

7. The final report of the qualitative research studies are detailed and interesting narrations about the phenomenon

15. Demerits

 1. Subjective bias is a constant threat to objective data gathering tools and analysis of techniques. 

2. The findings lack generalization because of the nature and size of the samples used for data collection.

 3. Qualitative research utilizes a variety of methodologies in studying a phenomenon in holistic perspective. In certain cases, it is difficult to focus on complex interdependencies of its parts and understand the meaning of the phenomenon as a whole.

 4. It is cost effective and takes a long deal of time.

        Criteria for SelectionCriteria Quantitative Qualitative Paradigm ParadigmResearcher’s worldview Researcher’s comfort with Researcher’s comfort with the ontological, the ontological, epistemological, epistemological, axiological, rhetorical, and axiological, rhetorical, and methodological methodological assumptions of the assumptions of the quantitative paradigm qualitative paradigmThinking and experience Technical writing skills, Literary writing skills,of the researcher. computer statistical skills, computer text analysis library skills. skills, and library skills.Researcher’s physiological Comfort with rules and Comfort with lack of rulesattributes guidelines for conducting and procedures for research, low tolerance for conducting research, high ambiguity, time for a study tolerance for ambiguity, of short duration. time for lengthy study.

       Criteria Quantitative Qualitative Paradigm ParadigmNature of the problem Previously studied by Exploratory research; other researchers so that variables unknown; body of literature exists; context important; may known variables; lack theory base for existing theories. study.Audience for study Individuals accustomed Individuals accustomed

ACTION RESEARCH

Action research

Action research is a a deliberate, solution oriented investigation made by a person or a group. It involves action and research. Action is in the sense that it brings about some changes in the area which action research focus on and research. In the sense that it is a systematic investigation into a problem The term action research was coined by Kurt lewin

Key points:____

*Action research is a kind of applied research

*It is a a reflective process which help teachers to explore and

 examine aspects of teaching and learning method to take action to change and improve

 

*it helps educator's to develop practical solutions to address them quickly and effectively

Steps of action research:_

*Title of the study

*Statement of the problem

 

*Need and significance of the study

*Objectives of the study

*Probable causes of the problem

*Formulation of action hypothesis

*Design of the study

*Analysis of data

*Findings

*Conclusion

Objective or purpose:_

*To improve classroom teaching

*To raise the achievement level of students

*To facilitate suitable atmosphere for effective learning

*To help teachers and administrators to study their problems well

*To develop scientific attitude in teachers

*T0 remedy problems of delinquency and backwardness

*To help School authorities to find out suitable rmedial measures....

Characteristics of action research

• Focus on immediate problem and its solution
  
• Not concerned with building theories or generalisation
  
• Aims to improve practices or work conditions
  
•  A plan of action
  
• The educator researches on practices
  
•  Dynamic process
  
•  Practical Focus
  
•  Sharing the search
  
• Application of action research in classroom
  
• Classroom action research begin with or questions about classroom experiences issues or challenges
  
• It is a reflexive process which helps teacher to explore and examine aspects of teaching and learning and to take action to change and improve
  

 Methods

• Observing individuals or  the groups
  
• Using audio and video recording
  
• Using structure or unstructured interviews
  
• Using for taking photography
  
• Distributing survey or questionnaires
  

Example of action research...

A mathematical teacher at the time of practice time of practice and and drill works find that some of the students are not able to to solve the problems in spite of fact

 Remedial measures:_

* The topic has been taught to them in class

*The problem have already been assigned to them in form of homework for practice

*while checking the home assignment that teacher has found that they have correctly solved the problem

Advantages of action research....

*It develops attitude in the teachers

*Teachers can adopt a teaching method and promote all round development of the people

* It increase achievement level of students

*Curriculum can be effectively developed

*It solves problem on discipline

*It removes discrepancies among pupils and students

*Solves problems of delinquency and backwardnes

Disadvantages:_

*Lack of time

*Validity

*Results are not generalizable

*Range of models and process

*Lack of generalizability

*Lack of repeatability and rigour

*Difficulties in distinguishing between action and research

*Delay in in completion of action research due to  wide range of reasons are not rare occurrences

PEDAGOGY – INTEGRATING ICT, CULTURAL INTEGRATION

PEDAGOGY – INTEGRATING ICT, CULTURAL INTEGRATION

INTRODUCTION

 Information and Communication Technologies are combined with forums, services, tools, technologies, information, knowledge, etc. which can be used for achieving goals of teaching learning pedagogy , also enhancing performance. ICT has contributing to whole universe. To access to education, impartiality in education, quality in Education, efficient education, also governance and administration. 

The entire education system has transformed into an innovative learning system. However, keeping in mind the practical aspects of teaching through ICT, especially in schools of rural and remote areas, it is assumed that the desired goals would be achieved once the computer technology, local area networks and the information management system are develop. As a result, there are clear and detailed planning, design and well-built technical support system, yet the desired outcomes have not been achieved.

Cultural integration in education refers to education and instruction designed for the cultures of several different race in an educational system. This approach to teaching and learning is based upon consensus building, respect, and fostering cultural pluralism within racial societies.

INTERGRATING ICT WITH PEDAGOGY

The major reasons behind the failure are not integrating the purpose, functions and procedure of functional system adequately. That is why ICT fails to function in assisting; spreading information and knowledge, hence, the applications and effects of ICT are not obtained. In paper there are so many techniques and so many tools are defined to use ICT very effective way. There are countries which incited one step towards to ICT learning. They are allowed you to do online course for the learner and experience about ICT in different sectors. PRAGATIis  a very elegant example of use of ICT technology. PRAGATI is a unique integrating and interactive platform. The platform is aimed at addressing common man’s grievances, and simultaneously monitoring and reviewing important programmes and projects Of the Government of India as well as projects flagged by State Governments

OBJECTIVES

•  The main aim to use ICT technology is to serve better education to whole world, providing high quality education with world class facilities to the youth of India and the earth, so that they can compete with the students all over the world.
  
•  − To enhance the efficiency of teachers developing expression power and improve the learning experience
  
• . − To implement the lifelong learning. 
  
• − The proper understanding and application of the concepts. 

• − Elaboration reasoning and critical thinking abilities, also develop proper study habits. − To increase judgment and decision making ability.
  
•  − To encourage for risk taking, scientific temper, etc.
  
•  − To keep up with rapid changes
  
• . − To encourage equal opportunities to achieve better education.
  
•  − To automatically and dynamically adjust the learning delivery.
  
•  − Enable the learners to perform a complete self-assessment that will help them identify their strengths and weaknesses.
  
•  − To understand learners’ grasping power, help with changing the complexity, efficiency, idea, speed, and other characteristics of the course to suit the learner.
  

MAJOR CHALLENGES OF ICT

• There are multiple issues and challenges confronting the implementation of ICT education in schools and educational institutions and the problems are much more magnified in case of schools located rural and remote area when the access to electricity and internet are next to impossible. The biggest challenge is the need for constant renewal in terms of content. The policy makers, educators, administrators and students in higher education are facing certain challenges like, Environmental challenges, Educational challenges and Cultural challenges.
  
• Environmental challenges :There is restriction on infrastructure area for the complete ICTs integration in education. So it becomes very significant for policy makers and planners before any development of ICT in education. Few things which we have to keep in mind when we implement ICT in education like proper classrooms and buildings need to be available for the latest technology as well as availability of telephony and electricity
  
• Educational challenges: It is one of the biggest challenges to develop ICT in education because of balancing educational goals with financial realities. In education, ICTs need huge amount of investments. Additional effort and time required to train teaching manpower, motivate educators and integrate ICT as a tool into their curriculum. In short, development of ICT in education requires to establishment facilities with appropriate infrastructure and adaptation of the latest technologies
  
• Cultural challenges: English is the foremost language of the internet. Miscellanies of culture in different area of the world are also challenges to introducing ICT in education. Almost 80% of online content, educational software are in English. English is not the first language in most of the countries. So it denotes a serious obstacle to integrating ICTs use in education system. For example, in India and Pakistan, almost all the websites are in English. Thus, some people may not access the information due to lack of in English efficiency.
  

SIGNIFICANCE OF ICT :

• Information and Communication Technology (ICT) can allow educators and learners to make important contributions in learning and achieving specific goals. There, needs to define some approaches to use ICT in the formal education sector to be revised and examined. Documentation, research techniques should be applied. Relationships between ICT, curriculum development, pedagogy and practice in classroom setting are considered. The term 'ICT', in curriculum is discussed. A framework for the investigation of contemporary understandings of ICT in pedagogical practice is presented. Three dimensions of ICT curriculum: I) proposed; 2) implemented and 3) achieved are employed in this framework. The structural approaches that can be applied for the examination of ICT in each of these three dimensions are discussed. This study will provide a ;
•  E-learning and access to  e-libraries. 
• − Access to varieties of learning resources. 
  
• − Access to online courses of any university. 
  
• − Propinquity to information 
  
• − Collaborative learning. 
  
• − Educational data storage. 
  
• − Learning at any time and any place. 
  
• − Distance learning. 
  
• − Reduces time on many routine tasks. 
  
• − Access to the sources and resources of information. 
  
• − Touch with any legend researcher. 
  
• − Multimedia approach to education. 
  
• − Teaching of different subjects made interesting. 
  
• − Access e-mail, chat, forum and blogs multiple communication channels. 
  
• − Easy, understandable and interesting learning. 

ICT IN 21ST CENTURY’S

For improving student learning outcome, we need to improve educational quality. Thus, students can be able to procure the skill which is needed for 21st century learning. Communication and Collaboration, digital literacy, citizenship, critical thinking and problem solving, creativity and being productive users of technology are important for 21st century skills. There are three skills of life and career in 21st Century. 1] Leadership & responsibility 2] Productivity & accountability and 3] Social & cross-cultural skills[1]. In learning environment, 21st century support to the professional learning. So the educators can easily collaborate and share their best practices. It enables students to learn with relevant contexts. It allows teachers for accessing quality teaching and learning tools, technologies and resources. It supports to expand face-to-face and online learning for cross cultures. In 21st century, mainly six key components are defines for learning

1] Emphasize core subjects

 2] Emphasize learning skills

 3] ICT tools to develop teaching and learning skills 

4] Teach and learn in a 21st century context 

5] Teaching and learning 21st century content and

 6] Use of 21st century assessments that measure 21st century skills.

CULTURAL INTEGRATION

All of us are concerned about diminishing moral values and the growing intolerance among communities, castes and groups that make up our great

nation . What is depressing is the sad reality that spread of education in the Country has made no serious difference in this regard. In fact, there are at

least some of us who suspect that the perfunctory education provided through our schools may have, to some extent, contributed to this distressing situation. Our school education relies almost exclusively on predetermined sets of

‘competencies’ to be acquired through rote memorization, thereby denying our children opportunities to exercise their innate thinking capabilities and their individual creativity. Our classroom pedagogy deprives children opportunities

to learn in a collaborative, reflective manner that would have at least helped them acquire basic social skills. Our outdated system of examination has contributed to a mad rush for ‘ranks’, ‘seats’ and ‘jobs’…making us wonder

whether we have, at some point in time, lost sight of the real.

 objectives of education.

• We are bothered about the declining awareness among our children about
  
• their own cultural backgrounds. Another cause for concern is the fact that
  
• education is looked upon by marginalized sections of the society to get
  
• ‘cultured’ in order to ‘get out of the rut’. Literacy, while opening up the entire
  
• world to these sections may also alienate them from their basic cultural
  
• strengths. We need to ensure that children from these sections recognize the
  
• strengths of their own ethos…and build up on those.
  
• It was in this context that the reconstituted CABE’s Committee of ‘Integration of Culture Education in the School Curriculum’ was given the rather broad
• mandate: to look into the ‘what’, the ‘why’ and the ‘how’ of inculcating cultural values through the School Curriculum.
• The Terms of Reference for the Committee are challenging:
  

a) To suggest ways of enhancing the quality of cultural awareness

among school going children.

b) To suggest ways of introducing both in curricular and extra curricularbways, the learning of our traditional, folk, classical and contemporary art forms

c) To suggest ways of helping the students to appreciate the world of

arts, music and literature

d) To suggest ways of introducing a capsule on the appreciation of arts

in the curriculum of teacher education

e) To suggest ways of introducing art appreciation as an elective

subject in the universities

d) To help understand the status of art and music schools and colleges

in the country.

Processes adopted

a) The sub-committee first met in Delhi and discussed the issue of

teaching /learning process of culture in schools on 2nd November 2004.

b) Some educationists, writers and theatre activists met in Mysore, RIE

and discussed the problems of cultural education broadly. The meeting

was held on March 10, 2005

c) A meeting of painters, musicians, writers and activists involved in

primary education were called in Bangalore from 23rd March 2005 to

26th March. 

d) Second meeting of the sub committee was held in Delhi, NCERT on March 31, 2005

e) Some further suggestions received from Shri Javed Akhtar with emphasis on exposing the child to popular arts. These ideas were generated after the second Delhi meet, 

f) Some further suggestions on the holistic use of the concept of

‘integration’ in a multi-cultural society by Ms Krishna Sobti. These ideas were generated during the discussion in the second Delhi meet. 

g) A detailed account of the integration of culture education in the school and college curriculum. This document was prepared after talking to school and college students, teachers, and parents by the Spic Macay. Dr Kiran Seth one of the members has got this done. 

CONCLUSION

The modern science, engineering and technology are based on Information and Communication Technology. ICT is a developmental tool and this technology can be helpful in meeting the governance, employment, education, health and commercial needs of the nation. To integrate ICT into the curriculum, institutions should provide suitable support to the teachers in terms of finance, infrastructure and e-resources. The success of ICT in rural areas will require many changes to the current landscapes, for example increased availability of education, training, infrastructure, and affordable ICT capital.

REFERENCE

• International Journal of Computer & Mathematical Sciences IJCMS ISSN 2347 – 8527 , Priyanka Patel, Nehal Patel., Volume 6, Issue 5 May 2017
  
• http://ictliteracy.info/rf.pdf/UsingICTQuality.pdf
  

• [1] Abtahi, M. S., &Hamidi, N. (2011). THE IMPORTANCE OF ICT IN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM AND CURRICULUM. In INTED2011 Proceedings (pp. 2853-2865). IATED. 
  
• [2] Daniel, J. S. (2001). Using ICT for quality teaching, learning and effective management. UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education. 
  
• [3] Mbodila, Munienge, Telisa Jones, and KikungaMuhandji. "Integration of ICT in education: Key challenges." International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering 3.11 (2013): 515-520. 
  
• [4] Raju, S. V., Raju, M. B., Abbaiah, G., &Gudavalli, M. (2016, February). Role of ICT in Outcome Based Education. In Advanced Computing (IACC), 2016 IEEE 6th International Conference on (pp. 815-819). IEEE. 
  
• [5] Bottino, R. M. (2004). The evolution of ICT‐based learning environments: which perspectives for the school of the future?. British Journal of Educational Technology, 35(5), 553-567. 
  
• [6] Heap, N. W., Kear, K. L., & Bissell, C. C. (2004). An overview of ICT-based assessment for engineering education. European Journal of Engineering Education, 29(2), 241-250. 
  
• [7] Stoner-Weiss, K. (1999). Central weakness and provincial autonomy: Observations on the devolution process in Russia. Post-Soviet Affairs, 15(1), 87-106. 
  
• [8]http://www.ksbe.edu/_assets/spi/pdfs/21_century_skills_full.pdf 
  

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH 

Descriptive research is used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being studied. It does not answer questions about how/when/why the characteristics occurred.  For example, over time the periodic table’s description of the elements allowed scientists to explain chemical reaction and make sound prediction when elements were combined. Hence, descriptive research cannot describe what caused a situation. Thus, descriptive research cannot be used as the basis of a causal relationship, where one variable affects another. In other words, descriptive research can be said to have a low requirement for internal validity.

Characteristics of Descriptive Research

• The term descriptive research then, refers to research questions, design of the research and data analysis that would be conducted on that topic. It is called an observational research method because none of the variables that are part of the research study are influenced in any capacity.
  
• Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:
  
• Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts to collect quantifiable information to be used for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is an popular market research tool that allows to collect and describe the nature of the demographic segment.

• Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.

• Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional study where different sections belonging to the same group are studied.

• Basis for further research: The data collected and analyzed from descriptive research can then be further researched using different research techniques. The data also can help point towards the types of research methods are to be used for the subsequent research.

Descriptive Research Methods

There are 3 distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research. They are:

• Observational Method
  
• The observational method is the most effective method to conduct descriptive research and both quantitative observation and qualitative observation are used in this research method.
  
• Quantitative observation is the objective collection of data which is primarily focused on numbers and values –  it suggests “associated to, of or depicted in terms of a quantity”. For example, the researcher can track if current customers will refer the brand by using a simple Net Promoter Score question.
  
• Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead just monitoring characteristics. In this case the researcher observes the respondents from a distance. Since the respondents are in a comfortable environment, the characteristics observed are natural and effective For example, in a supermarket, a researcher can from afar monitor and track the selection and purchasing trends of the customers. This offers a deeper insight into the purchasing experience of the customer.
  
• Case Study Method
  
• Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups. Case studies lead to a hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a phenomenon. However, case studies should not be used to determine cause and effect as they don’t have the capacity to make accurate predictions because there could be a bias on the part of the researcher. The other reason why case studies are not an accurate way of conducting descriptive research is because there could be an atypical respondent in the research and describing them leads to poor generalizations and move away from external validity.
• Survey Research

In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or questionnaires, or polls. They are a popular market research tool to collect feedback from respondents. In order for a survey to gather good quality data, it should have good survey questions, which should be a balanced mix of open-ended questions and close ended-questions. The survey method can be conducting online or offline which is makes it the go-to option for descriptive research where the sample size is very large.

Examples of Descriptive Research

An example of where descriptive research can be used is if a school district that wishes to evaluate teachers attitudes about using technology in the classroom. By conducting surveys and observing their comfortableness using technology through observational methods, the researcher can gauge what they can help understand if a full-fledged implementation can face an issues. This also helps in understanding if the students are impacted in any way with this change.

Advantages of Descriptive Research

• Some of the major advantages of descriptive research are:
  
• Data collection: Descriptive research can be conducted by using specific methods like observational method, case study method and survey method. Between these 3, all major methods of data collection are covered which provides a lot of information. This can be used for future research or even developing hypothesis of your research object.

• Varied: Since the data collected is both qualitative and quantitative, it gives a holistic understanding of a research topic. This causes data that was not planned to be collected gets tracked and the data is varied, diverse and thorough.

• Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the research to be conducted in the natural environment of the respondent and this ensures that high-quality and honest data is collected.

• Quick to conduct and cheap: As the sample size is generally large in descriptive research, the data collection is quick to conduct and is cheap.

• Forms basis for decision-making: As the data collected in descriptive research represents a larger population and is robust, it is easy to make decisions on the basis of the statistical analysis of that data.
  

Disadvantages of Descriptive Research

• Some of the major disadvantages of descriptive research are:
  
• Confidentiality: Respondents aren’t always truthful if questions are too personal or they feel that they are being “watched”. This may negate the validity of the data.

• Halo effect: If the research observer has a potential bias towards the research topic or some respondents in the research, the observations then maybe considered as invalid or untrue.

• Sample isn’t representative: Due to the randomness of the sample, it is very tough to validate that the sample is an accurate representation of the whole population.

• No scope to learn cause: Since descriptive research only focuses on the “what” of an objective or phenomenon, it does not delve into the “why or how” and that is a limitation in learning specific causes.

CONCLUSION :

Descriptive research is used extensively in social science, psychology and educational research. It can provide a rich data set that often brings to light new knowledge or awareness that may have otherwise gone unnoticed or encountered.  It is particularly useful when it is important to gather information with disruption of the subjects or when it is not possible to test and measure large numbers of samples.  It allows researchers to observe natural behaviors without affecting them in any way.